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You can change your ad preferences anytime. Upcoming SlideShare. Like this presentation? Why not share! Those are some few perks that can be obtained. Interactive CD-ROM offers full audio support, voice recording capabilities, and abundant interactive vocabulary practice games and activities. Installation requires having Apple Quicktime in whatever computer you install it in. The option for installing Quicktime included in the CD did not work so well in a computer which has Windows 7. But I downloaded a newer version of Quicktime and installed it, selecting costume settings which allowed me to install picture viewer with it.
After that, I finished the installation of the Heinle Picture Dictionary. I works perfect. I've used it before in institutional settings, but this is also a good review tool for more advanced students in EFL settings. When we speak, we have a physical level at which we produce individual sounds, like n, b and i.
As individual sounds, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. In a combination such as bin, we have another level with a meaning that is different from the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and, at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is one of the most economical features of human language because, with a limited set of sounds, we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations e.
Among other creatures, each communicative signal appears to be a single fixed form that cannot be broken down into separate parts. If the dog was operating with the double level i. Talking to Animals If these properties make human language such a unique communication system, then it would seem extremely unlikely that other creatures would be able to understand it. Some humans, however, do not behave as if this is the case. Riders can say Whoa to horses and they stop, we can say Heel to dogs and they will follow at heel well, sometimes , and a variety of circus animals go Up, Down and Roll over in response to spoken commands.
Should we treat these examples as evidence that non-humans can understand human language? Probably not. If it seems difficult to conceive of animals understanding human language, then it appears to be even less likely that an animal would be capable of producing human language. After all, we do not generally observe animals of one species learning to produce the signals of another species.
And, in some homes, a new baby and a puppy may arrive at the same time. Baby and puppy grow up in the same environment, hearing the same things, but two years later, the baby is making lots of human speech sounds and the puppy is not. Chimpanzees and Language The idea of raising a chimp and a child together may seem like a nightmare, but this is basically what was done in an early attempt to teach a chimpanzee to use human language.
In the s, two scientists Luella and Winthrop Kellogg reported on their experience of raising an infant chimpanzee together with their baby son. In the s, a chimpanzee named Viki was reared by another scientist couple Catherine and Keith Hayes in their own home, as if she was a human child.
Viki eventually managed to produce some words, rather poorly articulated versions of mama, papa and cup. In retrospect, this was a remarkable achievement since it has become clear that non-human primates do not actually have a physically structured vocal tract that is suitable for articulating the sounds used in speech. Washoe Recognizing that a chimpanzee was not likely to learn spoken language, another scientist couple Beatrix and Allen Gardner set out to teach a female chimpanzee called Washoe to use a version of American Sign Language.
From the beginning, the Gardners and their research assistants raised Washoe like a human child in a comfortable domestic environment. In a period of three and a half years, Washoe came to use signs for more than a hundred words, ranging from airplane, baby and banana through to window, woman and you. Some of the forms appear to have been inventions by Washoe, as in her novel sign for bib and in the combination water bird referring to a swan , which would seem to indicate that her communication system had the potential for productivity.
Washoe also demonstrated understanding of a much larger number of signs than she produced and was capable of holding rudimentary conversations, mainly in the form of question—answer sequences. Sarah and Lana At the same time as Washoe was learning sign language, another chimpanzee was being taught by Ann and David Premack to use a set of plastic shapes for the purpose of communicating with humans.
The basic approach was quite different from that of the Gardners. Sarah was not treated like a human child in a domestic environment. To begin with, she was over five years old when the training began. She remained an animal in a cage, being trained with food rewards to manipulate a set of symbols. Once she had learned to use a large number of the plastic shapes, Sarah was capable of getting an apple by selecting the correct plastic shape a blue triangle from a large array.
Notice that this symbol is arbitrary since it would be hard to argue for any natural connection between an apple and a blue plastic triangle. Sarah would get the chocolate. The language she learned was called Yerkish and consisted of a set of symbols on a large keyboard linked to a computer. When Lana wanted some water, she had to find and press four symbols to produce the message please machine give water, as illustrated in Figure 2.
There is, however, a lot of skepticism regarding these apparent linguistic skills. This is only one of the many arguments that have been presented against the idea that the use of signs and symbols by these chimpanzees is similar to the use of language. In complex experiments, designed to eliminate any visual cues, they showed that in the absence of any human, Washoe could produce correct signs to identify objects in pictures.
They also emphasize a major difference between Washoe and Nim. While Nim was a research animal in a complex environment, dealing with a lot of different researchers who were often not fluent signers, Washoe lived in a more limited domestic environment with a lot of opportunity for imaginative play and interaction with fluent signers who were also using sign language with each other.
They also report that another group of younger chimpanzees learned sign language and occasionally used signs with each other and with Washoe, even when there were no humans present. Kanzi In a more recent set of studies, an interesting development relevant to this controversy came about almost by accident. Although Matata did not do very well, her son Kanzi spontaneously started using the symbol system with great ease.
He had learned not by being taught, but by being exposed to, and observing, a kind of language in use at a very early age. Kanzi eventually developed a large symbol vocabulary over forms.
By the age of eight, he was reported to be able to demonstrate understanding of spoken English at a level comparable to a two-and-a-half-year-old human child. He had also become capable of using Yerkish to ask for his favorite movies, Quest for Fire and Greystoke about the Tarzan legend.
Using Language Important lessons have been learned from attempts to teach chimpanzees how to use forms of language. We have answered some questions. Were Washoe and Kanzi capable of taking part in interaction with humans by using a symbol system chosen by humans and not chimpanzees? It is in this more comprehensive and productive sense that we say that language is uniquely human.
Study Questions 1 What is displacement? B We recognized a distinction early in the chapter between communicative and informative signals. How does it relate to arbitrariness? What is recursion? Could it still be a universal property of human language if one language was discovered that had no evidence of recursion in its structure?
F We reviewed studies involving chimpanzees and bonobos learning to communicate with humans. Can only African apes accomplish this task? Are there any studies involving the Asian great ape, the orangutan, learning how to use a human communication system?
G What was the significance of the name given to the chimpanzee in the research conducted by the psychologist Herbert Terrace ? H Consider these statements about the symbol-using abilities of chimpanzees in animal language studies and decide if they are correct or not. What evidence can be used to argue for or against the accuracy of these statements? II The most persistent criticism of the chimpanzee language-learning projects is that the chimpanzees are simply making responses like trained animals for rewards and are consequently not using language to express anything.
Read over the following reports and try to decide how the different behaviors of these chimpanzees Dar, Washoe and Moja should be characterized. Signs are represented by words in capital letters. After her nap, Washoe signed OUT. I was hoping for Washoe to potty herself and did not comply. Greg was hooting and making other sounds, to prevent Dar from falling asleep.
This went on. Finally, I woofed and Moja leapt on me and hugged me. Moja stares longingly at Dairy Queen as we drive by. For background reading, see Rimpau et al. There is also a film with the title Project Nim Lionsgate that describes the unfortunate experiences of the chimpanzee Nim. Wintering, D. Morgan and M. Waldman Gardner and T. Wang ed. The Emergence of Language 16—27 W. Freeman Lana Rumbaugh, D. Archibald, M. Aronoff and J. Martins Press Rimpau, J.
Gardner and B. Gardner, B. Others may stumble but not you On hiccough, thorough, lough and through. Well done! Beware of heard, a dreadful word, That looks like beard and sounds like bird.
Watch out for meat and great and threat They rhyme with suite and straight and debt. Yet, as they chatter away, humans do not simply produce a random selection of these sounds.
Only certain sounds are selected on a regular basis as significant for communicative activity. In order to identify and describe those sounds, we have to slow down the chatter of everyday talk and focus on each individual sound segment within the stream of speech. This may seem straightforward, but it is not an easy task.
Phonetics Fortunately, there is an already established analytic framework for the study of speech segments that has been developed and refined for over a hundred years and is known as the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA. In this chapter, we will look at how some of the symbols of this alphabet can be used to represent the sounds of English words and what physical aspects of the human vocal tract are involved in the production of those sounds.
The full IPA chart can be found at internationalphoneticalphabet. The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. Our main interest will be in articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated. Other areas of study are acoustic phonetics, which deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air, and auditory phonetics or perceptual phonetics , which deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.
Consonants We are not generally aware of how we produce speech sounds and it takes a certain amount of concentration on what we are doing with our mouths to become capable of describing the individual sounds produced. We will begin with the consonants. Voiced and Voiceless Sounds To make a consonant sound, we start with the air pushed out by the lungs up through the trachea or windpipe to the larynx.
Inside the larynx are your vocal folds or vocal cords , which take two basic positions. Because these are voiced sounds, you should be able to feel some vibration. Because these are voiceless sounds, there should be no vibration.
Another trick is to put a finger in each ear, not too far, and produce the voiced sounds e. Z-Z-Z-Z to hear and feel some vibration, whereas no vibration will be heard or felt if you make voiceless sounds e. S-S-S-S in the same way. Place of Articulation Once the air has passed through the larynx, it enters the vocal tract and comes up via the pharynx, an extended tube shape about five inches 13 centimeters long. As noted in Chapter 1, we typically produce speech as we are breathing out and generally find it quite difficult to do very much talking while breathing in.
Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral tract through which the air is passing. The terms used to describe many sounds are those that denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place. What we need is a slice of head.
If we crack a head right down the middle, we will be able to see those parts of the oral cavity that are crucially involved in speech production. In Figure 3. To describe the place of articulation of most consonant sounds, we can start at the front of the mouth and work back.
We can also keep the voiced—voiceless distinction in mind and begin using the symbols of the IPA for specific sounds. These symbols will be enclosed within square brackets [ ]. Figure 3. We use [p] for the voiceless consonant in pop. We use [b] in Bob, [m] in mom and [w] in wet for the voiced versions. These are bilabial consonants, made with both lips. We use [f] and [v] for the labiodentals, which are formed using the upper front teeth and the lower lip at the beginning of fat and vat.
The voiceless [f] is at the beginning and the voiced [v] is at the end of the pronunciation of five. Behind the upper teeth is a rough area called the alveolar ridge. We raise the front of the tongue to this area when we make the alveolar sounds of [t] in tot, [d] in dad, [s], [z] in size, [r], [l] in rail and [n] in nun; [t] and [s] are voiceless, [d], [z], [r], [l] and [n] are voiced. Because the teeth are involved in creating these sounds, they are called dentals. There are some special symbols used for the sounds made in the middle area of the mouth, involving the tongue and the palate the roof of the mouth.
These are voiceless consonants. There is one consonant sound produced without the active use of the tongue. It is the [h] sound in have and hold, and the first sound in who and whose. This sound is described as a voiceless glottal. When the glottis is open, as in the production of other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipulation of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is [h].
A summary of the place of articulation for each consonant is presented in Table 3. Table 3. Although they have really different spellings, the first sound in photo and the last sound in enough are the same [f]. Perhaps more tricky are the final sounds in the pairs face versus phase and race versus raise: if you listen carefully, you will hear [s] in the first word of each pair and [z] in the second.
Manner of Articulation When we focus on the place of articulation for consonants, as in Table 3. But they are clearly different sounds. The difference is in how they are pronounced, or their manner of articulation. On the left-hand side are the terms for manner of articulation.
This sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly. Those young students who were told about the importance of Plato in class and wrote it in their notes as playdough were clearly victims of a misinterpreted flap.
Vowels While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air. They are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongue influences the shape through which the airflow must pass. To talk about a place of articulation, we think of the space inside the mouth as having a front versus a back and a high versus a low area.
For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for the last two, your tongue will move lower and cause your mouth to open wider. The sounds of relaxation and pleasure typically contain lower vowels. We can use a vowel chart, like Table 3. The movement in this diphthong is from low toward high front. While the vowels [e], [a] and [o] are used as single sounds in other languages, and by speakers of different varieties of English, they are more often used as the first sounds of diphthongs in American English.
Note that the final [r] sound, typically pronounced in American varieties, is often omitted in Southern British English. For many speakers, [e] is the short vowel in words like came and make. It is the unstressed vowel underlined in the everyday use of words such as afford, collapse, photograph, wanted, and in those very common words a and the in casual speech. You can check the transcription in Task A on page 38 to see how often the schwa sound occurs. There are many other variations in the physical articulation of speech sounds.
The more we focus on the subtle differences in each sound, the more likely we are to find ourselves describing the pronunciation of a group or an individual speaker. But those differences do not explain how we understand what total strangers with unfamiliar voices are saying. To make sense of how we do that, we need to look at the more general sound patterns, or the phonology, of a language. Study Questions 1 What different aspects of language are studied in articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics?
B We noted that the relationship between the spelling and pronunciation of English words is not always simple. Keeping this in mind, try to provide a basic phonetic representation of the following words. Some words will be in more than one list. So we say that [k] is a voiceless velar fricative. Write similar definitions for the initial sounds in the normal pronunciation of the following words.
Based on the following examples, can you work out what that common feature is? What are the four equivalent symbols used in the International Phonetic Alphabet, as illustrated in Table 3. Among the types of consonants already described affricates, fricatives, glides, liquids, nasals, stops , which are obstruents, which are sonorants and why?
G i How would you make a retroflex sound? H What is forensic phonetics? In front of a mirror or enlist a cooperative friend to be the speaker , say the following pairs of words. As you are doing this, can you decide which are rounded or unrounded vowels and which are tense or lax vowels?
What clues are you using to help you make your decision? II English has a number of expressions such as chit-chat and flip-flop which never seem to occur in the reverse order i. Perhaps you can add examples to the following list of similar expressions.
Roach, J. Setter and J. Katamba, P. Kerswill, R. Wodak and T. Live inne contri nire foresta. No mugheggia. Uanna dei pappa, mamma, e beibi go bice, orie e furghetta locche di dorra. Bai ene bai commese Goldilocchese.
Sci garra natingha tu du batte meiche troble. Sci puscia olle fudde daon di maute; no live cromma. Bob Belviso, quoted in Espy In the preceding chapter, we investigated the physical production of speech sounds in terms of the articulatory mechanisms of the human vocal tract.
That investigation was possible because of some rather amazing facts about the nature of language. Yet those two physically different individuals would inevitably have physically different vocal tracts, in terms of size and shape.
In a sense, every individual has a physically different vocal tract. Consequently, in purely physical terms, every individual will pronounce sounds differently.
There are, then, potentially millions of physically different ways of saying the simple word me. Phonology In addition to those millions of different individual vocal tracts, each individual will not pronounce the word me in a physically identical manner on every occasion.
Obvious differences occur when that individual is shouting, or has just woken from a deep sleep, or is suffering from a bad cold, or is trying to ask for a sixth martini, or any combination of these. The answer to that question is provided to a large extent by the study of phonology. Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on a theory of what every adult speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language.
Because of this theoretical status, phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds. We can use various different ways of spelling the words in the first and second lines below, but the underlying phonological representation in the third line is constant. See the end of the chapter for a full translation of the story.
In actual speech, these [t] sounds are all potentially very different from each other because they can be pronounced in such different ways in relation to the other sounds around them. These sounds must be distinct meaningful sounds, regardless of which individual vocal tract is being used to pronounce them, because they are what make the words tar, car, far and bar meaningfully distinct.
Considered from this point of view, we can see that phonology is concerned with the abstract representation of sounds in our minds that enables us to recognize and interpret the meaning of words on the basis of the actual physical sounds we say and hear. Phonemes Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme.
When we learn to use alphabetic writing, we are actually using the concept of the phoneme as the single stable sound type that is represented by a single written symbol. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes in a language.
If we change one sound in a word and there is a change of meaning, the sounds are distinct phonemes. Because these two sounds share some features, they are sometimes described as members of a natural class of phonemes. Phonemes that have certain features in common tend to behave phonologically in some similar ways.
Table 4. They are both voiceless stops. This type of feature analysis allows us to describe not only individual phonemes, but also the possible sequences of phonemes in a language. The [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. If you put the back of your hand in front of your mouth as you say tar, then star, you should feel some physical evidence of aspiration the puff of air accompanying the [t] sound at the beginning of tar but not in star.
Complementary Distribution When we have two different pronunciations allophones of a sound type phoneme , each used in different places in words, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
Minimal Pairs and Sets Phonemic distinctions in a language can be tested via pairs and sets of words. When two words such as fan and van are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme always in the same position in the word , they are described as a minimal set.
Examples of contrasting pairs and sets are presented in Table 4. The first minimal set in Table 4. According to my dictionary, these are not English words, but they could be viewed as possible English words. That is, our phonological knowledge of the pattern of sounds in English words would allow us to treat these forms as acceptable if, at some future time, they came into use.
They might, for example, begin as invented abbreviations I think Bubba is one very ignorant guy. They have been formed without obeying some constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes.
Such constraints are called the phonotactics i. Syllables A syllable must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs. The most common type of syllable also has a consonant C before the vowel V and is represented as CV. The basic elements of the syllable are the onset one or more consonants followed by the rhyme. Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda.
They are known as open syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup, at or hat, they are called closed syllables. Figure 4. There are many CC onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat, consisting of three initial consonants CCC.
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